Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Sexually transmitted diseases — also known as STDs and once called venereal diseases or VD — are infectious diseases that spread from person to person though intimate contact. STDs affect guys and girls of all ages and backgrounds who are having sex — it doesn't matter if they're rich or poor.
STDs are becoming more and more common: By the age of 21, almost 1 in 5 Americans requires treatment for an STD. Because teens are more at risk for getting some STDs, it's important to learn what you can do to protect yourself.
STDs are more than just an embarrassment. They're a serious health problem. If untreated, some STDs can cause permanent damage, such as infertility (the inability to have a baby) and even death (HIV/AIDS is one of the STDs that's on the rise in teens).

How STDs Spread
One reason STDs spread is because people think they need to have sexual intercourse to become infected. That's wrong. A person can get some STDs, like herpes or genital warts, through skin-to-skin contact with an infected area or sore. Another myth about STDs is that you can't get them if you have oral or anal sex. That's also wrong because the viruses or bacteria that cause STDs can enter the body through tiny cuts or tears in the mouth and anus, as well as the genitals.

STDs also spread easily because you can't tell whether someone has an infection. In fact, some people with STDs don't even know that they have them. These people are in danger of passing an infection on to their sex partners without even realizing it.
Some of the things that increase a person's chances of getting an STD are:
Sexual activity at a young age. The younger a person starts having sex, the greater his or her changes of becoming infected with an STD.

Lots of sex partners. People who have sexual contact — not just intercourse, but any form of intimate activity — with many different partners are more at risk than those who stay with the same partner.

Unprotected sex. Latex condoms are the only form of birth control that lessen your risk of contracting an STD. Spermicides, diaphragms, and other birth control methods may help prevent pregnancy, but they don't protect a person against STDs.

Preventing and Treating STDs
As with many other diseases, prevention is key. It's much easier to prevent STDs than treat them. The only way to completely prevent STDs is to abstain from all types of sexual contact.
People who are considering becoming sexually active should get regular gynecological or male genital examinations. There are two reasons for this. First, these exams give doctors a chance to teach people about STDs and protecting themselves. And second, regular exams give doctors more opportunities to check for STDs while they're still in their earliest, most treatable, stage.
Don't let embarrassment at the thought of having an STD keep you from seeking medical attention. Waiting to see a doctor may allow a disease to progress and cause more damage. If you think you may have an STD, or if you have had a partner who may have an STD, you should see a doctor right away.

If you don't have a doctor or prefer not to see your family doctor, you may be able to find a local clinic in your area where you can get an exam confidentially. Some national and local organizations operate STD hotlines staffed by trained specialists who can answer your questions and provide referrals. Calls to these hotlines are confidential. One hotline you can call for information is the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) National STD Hotline at 1-800-227-8922.
Not all infections in the genitals are caused by STDs. Sometimes people can get symptoms that seem very like those of STDs, even though they've never had sex. For girls, the vaginal infection bacterial vaginosis can easily be confused with both STDs and yeast infections. Guys may worry about bumps on the penis that turn out to be pimples or hair follicles. That's why it's important to see a doctor if you ever have questions about your sexual health.
Below are examples of STDs; information will be provided on each of them in further postings.


Chlamydia
Genital Herpes (HSV-2)
Genital Warts
Gonorrhea
Hepatitis B (HBV)
HIV and AIDS
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
Pubic Lice (Crabs)
Syphilis
Trichomoniasis

Adapted from Neumours Foundation

Chilhood illness - Fever

Fever is when your body's temperature exceeds 98.6 Fahrenheit, which is normal body temperature. It is usually a reaction to the body's immune system being activated to fight off
something.

Causes
Fever is a means of which the body alerts your child that something is wrong. Fever is not an illness per say, it is just a healthy, natural way your body is alerting your child to the presence of something awry. It can be the result of an infection, bacterial or viral, or the result of an immunization, or even in babies, it can be the result of too many layers of clthing, since young children cannot regulate their body temperature normally yet. Sometimes infants going through teething can acquire a slight fever, but it usually does not rise past 100 degrees fahrenheit.

Symptoms
Symptoms include: Flushing of the cheeks and body, chills, dehydration, lack of appetite and movement, the touch of skin, which is best felt at forehead and chest and notation of a temperature higher than 98.6 Fahrenheit on thermometer. A more severe fever can entail difficulty breathing, sweating profusely (usually happening when the fever starts to drop, generally a good sign), and should be monitored very closely as a fever that rises too high can cause convulsions, brain damage and inevitably death to the child.

Treatment
Usually, if the fever is below 102 degrees, home treatment will suffice in the care of the child. Usually stripping your child down to little or no clothing, applying warm cloths to forehead, prompting them to drink lots of water (to combat dehydration), and just letting the fever run its course will work out to the best interest of the child. Since fever usually is the by product of another problem though, it is always best to take your child in to see the physician and as with any other illness, it is important to always monitor your child to make sure he or she is not developing worse symptoms. Sometimes, it also helps to give your child small doses of acetaminophen, since that is proven to help combat high temperatures, but always check the dosage before you give your child medicine.

Adapted from SureBaby

Childhood illness - Asthma

Symptoms
Asthma usually starts out uneventfully and therein the danger lies. As with any condition, if you catch asthma in its earlier stages it will be easier to control and suppress, but the initial symptoms can be hard to diagnose. Initial symptoms of asthma include: A change in breathing, sneezing, moodiness, headache, runny/stuffy nose, coughing, itching of the chin or throat, drowsiness, & insomnia. If not caught early-on asthma will progress with a vengeance and become harder to contain. In contrast to the early warning signs of asthma, these symptoms are harder to ignore. They include: wheezing, shortness of breath & tightness of the chest. If even these symptoms not caught, a severe attack may occur. Such an attack is very dangerous to the patient and requires hospital attention. By this point it is highly unlikely that the attack will be able to be curbed easily. A severe attack usually constitutes respiratory distress. Symptoms are severe coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath and/or tightness in the chest, difficulty focusing, talking and/or walking, shallow, extremely fast or slow breathing, hunched shoulders, flaring of the nostrils, retraction of the skin on the neck between or below the ribs due to hard, increased breathing, and a gray or bluish tint to skin, beginning around the mouth.

What Is Asthma
Asthma is a persistent lung condition characterized by the inflammation of the airways leading to the lungs, progressing to sensitivity and/or allergy of the lining of the airways. And finally, with asthma there is an obstruction of airflow by the blockage of the airways. Athma is one of the most common conditions for a child today, but is manageable if controlled properly.

Causes
Asthma is caused by inflammation of the lining in your throat and airways. Asthma can be caused by many different allergens, such as dust, pet dander, odors, exercise, weather; even stress can be a determining factor. Each case is unique and discovering the causes of each patient is the key to preventing future outbreaks.

Diagnosis and Treatment
Asthma is usually diagnosed by studying the episodes that constituted the doctor’s visit in the first place. As stated before, researching and avoiding the causes of the patient’s outbreak is the primary treatment for outbreaks of asthma, although there are a few key classifications to make defining the cause of each patient’s asthma easier.

Exercise – Induced
Exercise has been known to cause asthma outbreaks, so treatment of such cases includes constant observation of breathing patterns through a peak-flow meter and observation of patient during activities.

Nocturnal
Nocturnal asthma is categorized by outbreaks that worsen at night. Usually treatment of such cases includes searching for underlying causes and treating those first.

Steroid – Resistant
Treatment of asthmatics usually involves medication of some sort, usually in either liquid or inhaler form. Steroid – resistant asthma is characterized by patients who are resistant to steroid therapy (inhalers and such) and other measures must be taken.
Medication for Asthma can come in pill, liquid, and/or inhalers. Quick relief is the key, since asthma worsens rapidly. Short-acting Beta-agonists relieve quickly to suppress asthma symptoms by relaxing the muscles around the inflamed airways. Anticholinergics are rapid-relief asthma medications, but they are slower than the short-acting beta-agonists. Steroid pills and syrups are usually used to curb severe asthma attacks. They ease the swelling and assist other asthma medicines in working better.
There are also long-term medications for children that include steroid inhalers, oral steroids and many, many other preventatives. Talk to your doctor about what is best for your child.

Adapted from SureBaby

Childhood illness - Ear Infection

An ear infection is when the lining/membrane of the middle part of the ear becomes inflamed, causing a hole to form in the eardrum, from which various problems within the ear result, including diminished hearing, inflammation, pain and dizziness.

Causes
Ear infections are usually the result of a respiratory or sinus infection, as the nasal & ear passages become congested and inflamed.Virus and bacterial infections can also cause ear infections. An other cause of ear infections is when the inner ear does not function properly and excess fluid is produced.

Symptoms
Symptoms of an ear infection include pus, excess fluid, and inflammation present or draining from within the ear. Hearing loss & pain may be present as well, and fever as well. Young children may demonstrate fussiness, insomnia, difficulty hearing and/or loss of appetite. If not properly treated, the ear infection could progress in severity causing the eardrum to rupture, which is intensely painful and if not treated, can mean permanent hearing loss.

Treatment
Studies show that about 80% of ear infections heal on their own, but if the infection persists past a period of a week or two, it is advised to visit an ENT or your child's primary physician. After being diagnosed with an ear infection, your doctor will probably prescribe necessary antibiotics to fight the bacteria causing the infection. Ear Infections are not contagious but sometimes the bacterium that can cause the ear infection itself can be contagious. A good rule of thumb is to basically keep your child away from other children if you suspect any infection is present.

Childhood illness - Conjunctivitis

Conjunctivitis, also referred to as "pinkeye" is an infection of the eye, usually brought on after a head cold or sinus infection. It is usually caused by bacteria that have escaped to the tear ducts from the nasal cavity, although allergies and viral infections can be a conduit as well. As a result, the eye gets irritated and an eye infection begins. It is characterized by a bright pink color that covers the white part of the eye.

Symptoms
Redness and itching of the eyes are usually the main symptoms although cold symptoms usually are evident due to conjunctivitis commonly being a secondary infection of a cold or sinus infection. Aversion to bright lights, swelling, and a discharge from the eye may be present as well.

Diagnosis and Treatment
A diagnose of conjunctivitis is relatively self-explanatory. Your child's doctor will examine the infected eye and check for alternative problems, and if it is conjunctivitis, treatment will probably involve medicated eye drops to bathe the eye and kill the infection. Occasionally the physician may take a sample of the discharge coming from the eye, if one is present, to test for bacteria.

Is Conjunctivitis Contagious?
The infection is highly contagious, easily spread by contact with contaminated liquid from the eye. The patient should be kept away from all other children and other family members until 2 days after medication is started

Adapted from SureBaby

Childhood illness - Bronchitis

Bronchitis is basically a less severe case of pneumonia and it is from this infection that pneumonia usually develops from if left unchecked. It is an infection brought about by inflammation of the bronchial tubes, i.e. a respiratory infection. Bronchitis can be acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis is usually severe and usually only lasts a couple of days, whereas chronic bronchitis can last months or even years

Causes
Bronchitis has many causes. A virus, bacteria, heartburn, even smoking, can all lead to a bronchitis infection. It is a very common infection, much like the advanced version of the common cold.

Symptoms
Symptoms may include, a dry cough that will entail mucus being brought up out of the lungs, headache, chills, fever, soreness or tightness in the chest, wheezing and problems breathing. Children with this infection are more susceptible to other infections. Children with asthma, or who are victims of secondhand smoke, are more susceptible to a bronchitis infection.

Diagnosis and treatment
Your childs physician will probably listen to your child's chest and breathing and then if he feels it is necessary will order an x-ray to take a further look at your child's chest. If the infection is caused by a virus, antibiotics will not work and therefore the infection will have to run its course. If this is the case, then you will just have to make your child as comfortable as possible during the course of the infection, and wait for your child's immune system to do its job. The best home treatment is to treat the child as if he or she has the common cold. Rest, lots of fluids, and over the counter medicines are all you can do to treat this type of bronchitis. Using a humidifier may help as well. If your child's bronchitis is caused by bacterium, your doctor may or may not prescribe antibiotics.

Is it contagious?
Bronchitis is extremely contagious; it can be contracted by coughing, sneezing, or through touching places that the infected person has touched.

Adapted from SureBaby

Childhood illness- ADHD

ADHD - Attention Deficit Hyperactivitiy Disorder
ADHD or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivitiy Disorder is a disorder that deals with behavior and development problems in children, and if left untreated in adults.

What are the symptoms ADHD symptoms are as follows: impulsiveness, hyperactivity, inability to concentrate, easily distracted by sights and/or sounds, restlessness, tendency to daydream, and an inability to complete projects/tasks at a rate suitable for their age level. Symptoms vary from patient to patient, and range from mild to severe.

Causes
The causes of ADHD are unable to be evidenced in proven studies. Opinions in physicians do acclaim that the brains of patients with the condition are different than the patients with normal brain activity.

Diagnosis and treatment
Since ADHD is such a broad disorder there is no single test to proper identify the condition. Rather ADHD is diagnosed after months of observation on a regular basis to pin point whether or not their symptoms pertain to ADHD. Diagnosing ADHD also entails gathering information from other avenues where the child is in constant attendence, such as school, child care, and/or home. Then the doctor will weigh how your childs behavior contrasts to that of other children within the same age group. Since medical problems can also contribute to some of the symptoms evidenced by ADHD your childs doctor will perform an additional physical exam to make sure none of the symptoms are a result of a pre-existing condition.There is no cure for ADHD, but symptoms can alleviate due to certain treatments. Your childs doctor can choose to use stimulants to help the patient which are medications used to treat ADHD whether moderate or severe in children over 6 years old. Your childs doctor may also try antidepressant therapy, which are medications used commonly to treat patients who are depressed. It is proven, however, that antidepressants are not as successful as stimulants or other treatments at controlling all around symptoms. Antidepressant therapy also typically takes longer for full effectiveness to occur. It has also been shown that two drugs categorized Catapres and Guanfacine, which are commonly used to treat high blood pressure have some affect on ADHD patients when used alone or with other stimulants. If you are not comfortable using medication to treat your child there are behavior management techniques available to replace or be used in addtion to medication. Most studies and experts agree that a combination of both medication and the afore mentioned techniques is the most successful way to help children with ADHD to recover to the best of their ability. It is best to ask your childs doctor what is the best treatment for your child. Symptoms of ADHD may also alleviate over time as your child progresses into adulthood.

Adapted from SureBaby

Childhood illness -Cough

Coughs are one of the most frequent symptoms of childhood illness, and although they can sound awful at times, they usually are not a symptom of a serious condition. In fact, coughing is a healthy and important reflex that helps clear the airways in the throat and chest.
Occasionally, though, your child's cough is going to warrant a visit to the doctor. Recognizing certain types of coughs will help you know how to handle them and when to seek medical help.

Types of Coughs and What They Typically Mean
Here's some guidance on different types of coughs and the kinds of conditions they're typically associated with. If you're concerned that your child's cough is an indication of a larger illness, or have any questions about your child's symptoms, call your child's doctor.

"Barky" Cough
Barky coughs are usually caused by an inflammation or swelling in the upper part of the airway. Most often barky coughs are caused by croup, an inflammation of the larynx (voice box) and trachea (windpipe).
Croup can be brought on by allergies, change in temperature at night or, most commonly, a viral upper respiratory infection. When a young child's airway becomes inflamed, it may swell near, or just below, the vocal cords, making it harder to breathe. Children younger than 3 years of age tend to get croup because their windpipes are narrow.
Croup can come on suddenly, and in the middle of the night, when your child is at rest. Often it's accompanied by stridor, a noisy, harsh breathing (some doctors describe it as a coarse, musical sound) that occurs when a child inhales (breathes in).

"Whooping" Cough
Whooping cough is another name used to refer to the illness pertussis, an infection of the respiratory tract that's caused by a type of bacteria called bordetella pertussis. The illness is marked by severe coughing spells that end in a "whooping" sound when a child breathes in. Other symptoms of pertussis include a runny nose, sneezing, mild cough, and a low-grade fever.
Although pertussis can occur at any age, it's most severe in infants under 1 year old who aren't immunized. The pertussis vaccine, which is part of the DTaP (diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis) immunization, is routinely given in five doses before a child's sixth birthday. It's important to follow the immunization schedule that your child's doctor provides.
Pertussis is highly contagious. The bacteria can spread from person to person through tiny drops of fluid in the air from an infected person's nose or mouth, which get propelled by sneezes, coughs, or laughs. Other people can become infected by inhaling the drops or getting the drops on their hands and then touching their mouths or noses.

Cough With Wheezing
When coughing is accompanied by a wheezing sound as your child exhales, it may be a sign that your child's lower airway is inflamed. There is also the possibility, particularly in a younger child, that the lower airway is being blocked by a foreign object or mucus from a respiratory infection.

Nighttime Cough
Lots of coughs get worse at night because the congestion in a child's nose and sinuses drains down the throat and causes irritation while the child lies in bed. This is only a problem if your child is unable to sleep. Asthma can also trigger nighttime coughs because the airways tend to be more sensitive and become more irritable at night.

Daytime Cough
Allergies, asthma, colds, and other respiratory infections are the usual culprits of daytime coughs. Cold air or activity can make these coughs worse, and they often subside at night or when the child is resting. It's a good idea to make sure that nothing in your house - like air freshener, pets, or smoke (especially tobacco smoke) - is making your child cough.

Cough With a Fever
If your child has a cough, mild fever, and runny nose, chances are that he or she has a common cold. But coughs with a fever of 102 degrees Fahrenheit (39 degrees Celsius) or higher can mean pneumonia, particularly if your child is listless and breathing fast. In this case, call your child's doctor immediately.

Cough With Vomiting
Children often cough so much that it triggers their gag reflex, making them throw up. Usually, this is not cause for alarm unless the vomiting persists. Also, if your child has a cough with a cold or an asthma flare-up, he or she may throw up if lots of mucus drains into the stomach and causes nausea.

Persistent Cough
Coughs caused by colds can last weeks, especially if your child has one cold right after another. Asthma, allergies, or a chronic infection in the sinuses or breathing passages might also be responsible for these persistent coughs. If the cough lasts for 3 weeks, notify your child's doctor.

When to Call Your Child's Doctor
Most childhood coughs are nothing to be concerned about. However, consult a doctor if your child:
has trouble breathing or is working hard to breathe, is breathing more quickly than usual has a blue or dusky color to the lips, face, or tongue, has a high fever (particularly in a young infant or in the absence of congestion or a runny nose; contact your child's doctor for any fever in an infant younger than 3 months), is an infant (3 months old or younger) who has been coughing for more than a few hours, makes a "whooping" sound when she breathes after coughing, is coughing up blood, has stridor when inhaling, has wheezing when exhaling (unless you already have home asthma management instructions from your child's doctor), is listless or cranky

Professional Treatment
One of the best ways to diagnose a cough is by listening. Your child's doctor will determine how to treat your child based in part on what the cough sounds like.
Because the majority of respiratory illnesses are caused by viruses, doctors typically do not prescribe antibiotics for coughs. If your doctor suspects some kind of bacterial infection, he or she will probably prescribe antibiotics. Some coughing-related illnesses just need to run their course.
Unless your child's cough is preventing sleep, cough medicines are usually unnecessary. If you do choose to use an over-the-counter (OTC) cough suppressant, consult the doctor to be sure that the dose is correct since all medications can have side effects and, in some cases, can even be dangerous for infants and young children.

Home Treatment
Home treatments should never take the place of consulting your child's doctor for any of the conditions listed above, but there are several things you can do at home to make your child more comfortable.
If your child has asthma, make sure you have received asthma-management instructions from your child's doctor. Monitor your child's progress carefully during a flare-up and give asthma medicines according to the doctor's instructions.
If your child wakes up with a "barky" or "croupy" cough in the middle of the night, take him or her into the bathroom, close the door, and let the shower run on hot for several minutes. After the room steams up, sit in the bathroom with your child for about 20 minutes. The steam should help your child breathe more easily. Try reading a book together to keep your child occupied.
A cool-mist humidifier in your child's room might help him or her sleep through the night.
Cool beverages like juice can be soothing; avoid carbonated or citrus drinks, however, because carbonation and citric acid can be painful on raw areas.
You should not give your child (especially a baby or toddler) OTC cough medicine without specific instructions to do so from your child's doctor.
Cough drops, which are fine for older children, are a choking hazard for young children. It's best to avoid them unless your child's doctor says that they are safe to provide to your child.

Adapted from Nemours Foundation

Banana - Continued

Banana - nutritional Fact

Bananas, rich in carbohydrates, also contain phosphorus, potassium and vitamins A and C. Containing three natural sugars - sucrose, fructose and glucose combined with fiber, a banana gives an instant, sustained and substantial boost of energy. Research has proven that just two bananas provide enough energy for a strenuous 90-minute workout. No wonder the banana is the number one fruit with the world's leading athletes.
But energy isn't the only way a banana can help us keep fit. It can also help overcome or prevent a substantial number of illnesses and conditions, making it a must to add to our daily diet.
Bananas, as an integral part of a diet, can help or overcome a number of illnesses and conditions. Consider the benefits of the banana and these conditions:

Depression: According to a recent survey undertaken by MIND amongst people suffering from depression, many felt much better after eating a banana. This is because bananas contain tryptophan, a type of protein that the body converts into serotonin, known to make you relax, improve your mood and generally make you feel happier.

PMS: Forget the pills -- eat a banana. The vitamin B6 it contains regulates blood glucose levels, which can affect your mood.

Anemia: High in iron, bananas can stimulate the production of hemoglobin in the blood and so helps in cases of anemia.

Blood Pressure: This unique tropical fruit is extremely high in potassium yet low in salt, making it the perfect way to beat blood pressure. So much so, the US Food and Drug Administration has just allowed the banana industry to make official claims for the fruit's ability to reduce the risk of blood pressure and stroke.
Brain Power: Research has shown that the potassium-packed fruit can assist learning by making pupils more alert.

Constipation: High in fiber, including bananas in the diet can help restore normal bowel action, helping to overcome the problem without resorting to laxatives.

Hangovers: One of the quickest ways of curing a hangover is to make a banana milk shake, sweetened with honey. The banana calms the stomach and, with the help of the honey, builds up depleted blood sugar levels, while the milk soothes and re-hydrates your system.

Heartburn: Bananas have a natural antacid effect in the body; so if you suffer from heartburn, try eating a banana for soothing relief.

Morning Sickness: Snacking on bananas between meals helps to keep blood sugar levels up and avoid morning sickness.

Mosquito bites: Before reaching for the insect bite cream, try rubbing the affected area with the inside of a banana skin. Many people find it amazingly successful at reducing swelling and irritation.

Nerves: Bananas are high in B vitamins that help calm the nervous system.
Overweight and at work? Studies at the Institute of Psychology in Austria found pressure at work leads to gorging on comfort food like chocolate and crisps. Looking at 5,000 hospital patients, researchers found the most obese were more likely to be in high-pressure jobs. The report concluded that, to avoid panic-induced food cravings, we need to control our blood sugar levels by snacking on high carbohydrate foods every two hours to keep levels steady. Read more about weight and how to stop it.

Ulcers: The banana is used as the dietary food against intestinal disorders because of its soft texture and smoothness. It is the only raw fruit that can be eaten without distress in over-chronicler cases. It also neutralizes over-acidity and reduces irritation by coating the lining of the stomach.
Temperature control: Many other cultures see bananas as a "cooling" fruit that can lower both the physical and emotional temperature of expectant mothers. In Thailand, for example, pregnant women eat bananas to ensure their baby is born with a cool temperature Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): Bananas can help SAD sufferers because they contain the natural mood enhancer tryptophan

Smoking: Bananas can also help people trying to give up smoking. The B6, B12 they contain, as well as the potassium and magnesium found in them, help the body recover from the effects of nicotine withdrawal.

Stress: Potassium is a vital mineral, which helps normalize the heartbeat, sends oxygen to the brain and regulates your body's water balance. When we are stressed, our metabolic rate rises, thereby reducing our potassium levels. These can be balanced with the help of a high-potassium banana snack.

Strokes: According to research in "The New England Journal of Medicine, "eating bananas as part of a regular diet can cut the risk of death by strokes by as much as 40%!
So, a banana really is a natural remedy for many ills. When you compare it to an apple, it has four times the protein, twice the carbohydrates, three times the phosphorus, five times the vitamin A and iron, and twice the other vitamins and minerals. It is also rich in potassium and is one of the best value foods around.

Bananas are a great source for nutrition. They are a good source of fiber, vitamin C, and potassium. One banana has 16% of the fiber, 15% of the vitamin C, and 11% of the potassium we need every day for good health. So maybe its time to change that well known phrase so that we say, "A banana a day keeps the doctor away!"

Now go search for them. Don’t forget to get it while returning from shopping or market. But be aware; a fully ripped Banana cants stay more than 24hours maximum.

Oral Health-Chewing stick vs Toothbrush

Chewing stick
Chewing sticks are used very widely in Africa and Asia as a means of maintaining oral hygiene. They are made from the roots, twigs, or stem of a plant. The preferred part or parts are cleaned with water to remove dirt, cut to a convenient length which varies from 15-30 cm long, and tied into a bundle. The user holds one end directly in his mouth and chews it into a fibrous brush-like fringe, which is used to scrub the surfaces of the teeth. A combination of vertical and horizontal strokes of the “brush” on tooth surfaces removes plaque. The tongue is scrubbed as well. Cleansing movement is directed away from the gingival margin to avoid induced recession and undue damage to the gums. Chewing sticks are used in the mornings before breakfast and at night after supper for daily oral hygiene maintenance. About five minutes of complete devotion to this exercise is deemed adequate to achieve good cleansing. According to Sote and Wilson, chewing sticks obtained form a variety of selected plants are used as a traditional method of mechanical oral hygiene by up to 80–90% of Nigerians. Studies by Danielsen et al. Van Palentstein Helderman et al, Aderinokun et al., and Almas and Al-Zeid have demonstrated chewing sticks are at least as effective as toothbrushes in maintaining oral hygiene. Sathananthan et al. reported Africans that use chewing sticks have fewer carious lesions than those that use toothbrushes, and their use has been encouraged by the World Health Organization. Apart from their mechanical effects, many of these chewing sticks have been shown to have significant antimicrobial activity against a broad spectrum of microorganisms.
Toothbrush
The toothbrush is an instrument used to clean teeth, consisting of a small brush on a handle. Toothpaste, often containing fluoride, is commonly added to a toothbrush to aid in cleaning. Toothbrushes are offered with varying textures of bristles, and come in many different sizes and forms. Most dentists recommend using a toothbrush labelled "Soft", since firmer bristled toothbrushes can damage enamel and irritate gums. Toothbrushes are often made from synthetic materials, although natural toothbrushes are also known in many parts of the world.

What is the proper technique for teeth brushing?
Because every mouth is different, there is more than one technique of brushing that has proven to be effective. Deciding which technique is most appropriate for you depends largely on your teeth position and gum condition. Consult your physician and/or dentist to determine which brushing technique is most appropriate for your mouth.
Generally, most dentists recommend a circular technique for brushing. This includes brushing only a small group of teeth at a time -- gradually covering the entire mouth. The importance of maintaining a circular or elliptical motion is emphasized as using a back and forth motion may cause the following:
· a receded gum surface
· an exposed and tender root surface
· a wearing down of the gum line
Instead, dentists recommend the following method:
Step 1: Place the toothbrush beside your teeth at a 45-degree angle.
Step 2: Gently brush teeth only a small group of teeth at a time (in a circular or elliptical motion) until the entire mouth is covered.
Step 3: Brush the outside of the teeth, inside of the teeth, the chewing surfaces, and in between each tooth.
Step 4: Gently brush the tongue to remove bacteria and freshen breath.
Step 5: Repeat steps 1 through 4 at least twice daily, especially after meals and snacks.

What type of toothbrush should be used?
A toothbrush head should be small -- about 1 inch by 1/2 inch -- and should have a handle suitable for firm grasping. The bristles of the brush should be soft, nylon, and rounded at the ends. This helps ensure that the brush bristles are reaching the spaces between the teeth as well as the surface. Some brushes are too abrasive and can wear down the enamel on teeth. Thus, in most cases, medium and hard bristles are not recommended.

How often is brushing necessary?
Generally, brushing is recommended twice a day for at least three to four minutes each time. Patients generally think they are brushing long enough, when, in fact, most people spend less than one minute brushing. In addition, it is generally better to brush 3 to 4 minutes twice a day instead of brushing quickly five or more times throughout the day.
Dentists advise brushing your teeth during the day while at work, school, or play. Keeping a toothbrush handy -- in your desk or backpack -- increases the chances that you will brush during the day.

What is toothpaste?
Also called dentifrice, toothpaste is comprised of the following cleaning ingredients (stated in approximate percentages):
· humectant and water - 75 percent
· abrasive - 20 percent
· foaming and flavoring agents - 2 percent
· pH buffers - 2 percent
· coloring agents, binders, and opacifiers - 1.5 percent
· fluoride - .24 percent
Facts about toothpaste:
Brushing with toothpaste (particularly toothpaste with fluoride) helps to accomplish the following:
· remove plaque
· resist decay
· promote remineralization
· clean and polish teeth
· remove teeth stains
· freshen breath

Which type of toothpaste is best?
Fluoride is the most crucial ingredient in toothpaste. As long as the toothpaste contains fluoride, the brand, nor type (paste, gel, or powder) generally does not matter. All fluoride toothpastes work effectively to fight plaque and cavities, and clean and polish tooth enamel. The brand you choose should bear the ADA (American Dental Association) seal of approval on the container, which means that adequate evidence of safety and efficacy have been demonstrated in controlled, clinical trials.
Some toothpastes offer tartar control pyrophosphates to prevent the build-up of soft calculus deposits on teeth, while others offer whitening formulas to safely remove stains making teeth brighter and shinier. But, contrary to clever advertising and popular belief, fluoride is the true active ingredient that works the hardest to protect your teeth.

Are you going to use a chewing stick or a toothbrush?

Banana - Just a sweet fruit?

The banana plant, often erroneously referred to as a "tree", is a large herb, with succulent, very juicy stem (properly "pseudostem") which is a cylinder of leaf-petiole sheaths, reaching a height of 20 to 25 ft (6-7.5 m) and arising from a fleshy rhizome or corm. Suckers spring up around the main plant forming a clump or "stool'', the eldest sucker replacing the main plant when it fruits and dies, and this process of succession continues indefinitely. Tender, smooth, oblong or elliptic, fleshy-stalked leaves, numbering 4 or 5 to 15, are arranged spirally.

I am not going into into detailed description of the it. But what really interest me is what this plant does to the body. let take a brief look at some of it.

There are many varieties of bananas, each with a distinctive flavour, colour and sizes. Colour ranges from different shades of green, light to deep yellow, reds. The green banana is put to mature; unripe fruit are made into curries and vegetable dishes. Sliced raw banana (plantain) fried in oil makes very tasty wafers. Ripe bananas contain carbohydrates in the form of sucrose, fructose and glucose, which are readily digested.
The fruit, Banana requires a special mention. An average banana weighs about 150gms. It supplies more calories than any other fresh fruit.
1.2gms of protein
78 mcgs of carotene
88mgs of potassium
27.2gms of carbohydrate
116 k calories
0.4gms fibre
Cholesterol and fat content is minimal in banana. Cooked or ripe bananas are very well digested and the nutrients are absorbed well. The fruit is a fair source of B vitamins and calcium. It contains appreciable amounts of many trace minerals as well as fibre. Apart from this, the fruit has many important acids, enzymes and physiologically important chemical compounds.
Banana is a good source of potassium, which is a vital mineral for muscle and nerve function. Potassium also helps to regulate blood pressure. They also contain a high level of natural sugar in both their fresh and dried form, which they release quickly into the blood stream. This explains why many athletes especially tennis players often eat banana before and in between competition.
Ripe bananas are so easy to digest and rarely cause allergic reactions. Babies can digest them as early as the third month. Because of all this they are a popular solid food for babies. Mashed banana with milk and sugar can be an excellent supplementary or weaning food for children. Gruel made of banana flour is a commonly used infant food.
They are also good for treating child hood stomach upsets. BRAT diet comprising of banana, rice, apple, and toast are used for children with diarrhoea. Bananas contain no gluten hence their value in coeliac disease of children and adults. They are also a useful food for convalescence after any severe illness.
Ripe bananas have a mild laxative property and hence are very useful in children's dietaries particularly as a remedy for constipation. At the same time the fruit is helpful to combat diarrhoea and dysentery heals intestinal lesions etc. They are also used in the diets of children being treated for severe malnutrition. Experiments have shown that intake of banana helps children to retain many minerals.
Bananas are common ingredient in many salad dishes, icecreams and milkshakes. Ripe bananas are used to make several confectioneries malted milk drinks and even alcoholic beverages. But the best way to eat it is straight after peeling. When ripe, the fruit cannot be preserved for many days as it spoils easily. Sudden cooling also spoils the fruit and gives off flavour.
Diet is of utmost importance in the treatment of ulcer. The diet should be so arranged to provide adequate nutrition to afford rest to disturbed organs to maintain continuous neutralisation of the gastric acid, to inhibit the production of acid and to reduce mechanical and chemical irritation. The plantain or banana has an alkaline ash, therefore it has the ability to correct acidosis caused by acid forming diets. There fore they may be used in the treatment of peptic ulcer. Many sufferers of stomach ulcer report that it is a soothing food because of its blandness. The medicinal impact of banana and plantain on stomach ulcers claims that bananas stimulate cell and mucus production in the stomach lining by thicking the stomach.
The fruits of some varieties of bananas, besides having medicinal properties possess power to increase resistance to diseases. Bananas are rich in phosphorous, hence its combination with milk helps to calm down the nerves. For young children bananas mixed with tulsi or basil leaves activates the brain. The fruit can be prescribed for gout, a type of arthritis, constipation, diarrhoea, indigestion, eczema, hypertension, and even insomnia.

To be continued...

Diet and Eating Tips

Never starve yourself, especially before going out to eat (or you will binge). Never skip meals, you must have some kind of nourishment regularly or your body's starvation defenses will kick in, lower your metabolism, and store fat.
Exercise – If you want to stay healthy and make weight loss permanent you just cant do without exercise. Along with cutting down on the fat you eat exercising regularly may be your best ally in improving your all around health and bringing your weight loss under control.
Schedule your exercise time just as you plan your other activities of the day. Treat this time as an important appointment you don’t want to miss
Write your weight goal & post it where you'll see it everyday.
You are responsible for what you do & what you eat.
Eat to live, not live to eat. Overeating can KILL you!
Repeat: "I'm learning a way to live, not just a way to diet."
Water is essential to all bodily functions and has no calories. It is the perfect drink for dieters. You need eight 8 oz. glasses of water daily.
Be happy: you're OK! Resisting all those tempting foods is NOT going to kill you.
Limit your time in the grocery store. The longer you stay, the more you will buy.
Be patient - it took years to gain weight; it takes time to lose weight.
"Nibble" food and "linger" over drinks. Do the "Push Away From The Table Exercise."
Chew your food completely: digestion begins in the mouth. Avoid "washing" half-chewed food down.
Let someone else be the walking garbage disposal: you are no longer responsible for eating up the leftovers after a meal.
Success is when you can look beyond food...and look down and see your feet.
Each day you stay on your weight-loss diet brings you closer to your weight goal.
The purpose of getting together with people is to enjoy their company...not eating.
Chart or graph your weight loss and serving selections.
Take small servings - avoid gorging yourself.
Consuming most calories in one big meal is the worst way to diet. Eat 4 or 5 small meals rather than in one all-out feeding frenzy.
If your schedule only permits you to eat one major meal in a day, eat it in the morning to midday hours rather than afternoon/evening hours.
Lose weight with a supportive friend or in a support group.

Types of Diets

Fixed-menu diet.
A fixed-menu diet provides a list of all the foods you will eat. This kind of diet can be easy to follow because the foods are selected for you. But, you get very few different food choices which may make the diet boring and hard to follow away from home. In addition, fixed-menu diets do not teach the food selection skills necessary for keeping weight off. If you start with a fixed-menu diet, you should switch eventually to a plan that helps you learn to make meal choices on your own, such as an exchange-type diet.

Exchange-type diet.
An exchange-type diet is a meal plan with a set number of servings from each of several food groups. Within each group, foods are about equal in calories and can be interchanged as you wish. For example, the "starch" category could include one slice of bread or 1/2 cup of oatmeal; each is about equal in nutritional value and calories. If your meal plan calls for two starch choices at breakfast, you could choose to eat two slices of bread, or one slice of bread and 1/2 cup of oatmeal. With the exchange-type diet plans, you have more day-to-day variety and you can easily follow the diet away from home. The most important advantage is that exchange-type diet plans teach the food selection skills you need to keep your weight off.

Prepackaged-meal diet.
These diets require you to buy prepackaged meals. Such meals may help you learn appropriate portion sizes. However, they can be costly. Before beginning this type of program, find out whether you will need to buy the meals and how much the meals cost. You should also find out whether the program will teach you how to select and prepare food, skills that are needed to sustain weight loss.

Formula diet.
Formula diets are weight-loss plans that replace one or more meals with a liquid formula. Most formula diets are balanced diets containing a mix of protein, carbohydrate, and usually a small amount of fat. Formula diets are usually sold as liquid or a powder to be mixed with liquid. Although formula diets are easy to use and do promote short-term weight loss, most people regain the weight as soon as they stop using the formula. In addition, formula diets do not teach you how to make healthy food choices, a necessary skill for keeping your weight off.

Questionable diets.
You should avoid any diet that suggests you eat a certain nutrient, food, or combination of foods to promote easy weight loss. Some of these diets may work in the short term because they are low in calories. However, they are often not well balanced and may cause nutrient deficiencies. In addition, they do not teach eating habits that are important for long-term weight management.
Flexible diets.
Some programs or books suggest monitoring fat only, calories only, or a combination of the two, with the individual making the choice of both the type and amount of food eaten. This flexible type of approach works well for many people, and teaches them how to control what they eat. One drawback of flexible diets is that some don't consider the total diet. For example, programs that monitor fat only often allow people to take in unlimited amounts of excess calories from sugars, and therefore don't lead to weight loss.
It is important to choose an eating plan that you can live with. The plan should also teach you how to select and prepare healthy foods, as well as how to maintain your new weight. Remember that many people tend to regain lost weight. Eating a healthful and nutritious diet to maintain your new weight, combined with regular physical activity, helps to prevent weight regain.

Facing Over weight
Emphasize your weight loss triumphs and work towards making them more frequent
Find a weight loss "buddy," club, or support group. This will help you stay with your weight loss program.
Use mustard on your sandwiches instead of mayonnaise. Mustard has no fat & very little calories while Mayo, is loaded with fat. If you just don’t like the taste of mustard, find a low-fat alternative, but avoid mayonnaise at all costs.
Weigh yourself each week. Don't be worried about small daily changes in your weight. You shouldn't lose more than 1 - 2 pounds a week. There may be weeks when you don't lose weight. This is normal. Stay on your diet to lose weight.
Bake, roast, or broil your food instead of frying. Remove all fat from meats and skin from poultry before cooking.
Drink 6 to 8 glasses of water each day. This will help flush out your body while also suppressing your appetite
If you haven't done so already, switch to diet soft drinks. An average 12 Oz can of regular soda contains around 120 calories, while the diet version usually has one or zero. If you drink 3 cans a day, you'll be saving 360 calories right there. Now multiply that by 7 days a week, 30 days a month and 365 days a year... You'll be saving a lot of calories!
Limit alcohol. Alcoholic drinks have many calories & little else.
Don't give it up if you don't want to, just reduce your intake.
Pick one place at home and work that you will do all your eating. Be sure you are seated. Don't eat anywhere but in that place. Enjoy your food by sitting down and eating slowly. Sitting down focuses your attention more directly on the activity of eating. By eating in the same place you identify and associate that place with the idea that it is the only area in which you should eat.
Shop for Groceries only after eating. You will be less likely to buy foods impulsively – especially foods you don’t need.
When you shop for groceries stick to your shopping list. This helps you guard against impulse buying. Make sure you list is complete and do not buy any extra food items.
Watch food labels. Foods with a high percentage of fat (or carbohydrates that are sugars) will slow down your weight loss program Don't just count grams, count percentage of total calories that are fat or sugars.
Don't think that just because you are eating low fat/low calorie foods that you can eat all that you want. The calories still add up and must be burned off regardless of what kind of food you eat. Balance is the key.
If you are going to a restaurant, decide ahead of time what you will be eating. Stick to it.

Pregnancy- the ecstasy, the discomfort

Pregnancy is a dream comes true of every woman, besides when a man sees her woman pregnant, he believes he did it very well and feels he is up to a man.At the same time, there are stresses and problems that at times try to interrupt the happiness. This is the problem associated with early pregnancy. Let’s take a view of how this happens and what can be done about it.

Early pregnancy has its share of discomforts. Some, such as mild nausea and fatigue, are almost universal. Others, including nosebleeds and bladder infections, are less common.
Soon after you conceive, your body begins a series of major changes that enable it to sustain your baby through 37 weeks of growth and development. The glands of your endocrine system and placenta step up hormone production. Your blood volume increases and your uterus expand.

By the fourth month of pregnancy, you'll begin to feel much more like your old self, presumably because your body has adjusted somewhat to these dramatic changes. Until then, you can rest assured that first-trimester symptoms are almost always associated with normal pregnancies that have good outcomes. Morning sickness and the other ailments that occur around this time are almost always mild enough to manage on your own. Here's a rundown of the most common first-trimester symptoms.

Morning sickness
How common is it?Up to 70 percent of expectant mothers have nausea, sometimes with vomiting, early in pregnancy. Queasiness may be most noticeable in the morning, but it can occur at any time. Even if you aren't nauseated, you may develop aversions to certain foods, such as coffee and meat, partly because of their odors. As long as you continue to eat a healthy diet and get all the nutrients you need, food aversions aren't a cause for concern.

What causes it?
The exact cause is unclear, but pregnancy hormones that relax the stomach may play a role.

How long does it last?
It generally improves by the 13th or 14th week of pregnancy, but some women continue to feel queasy from time to time well into the second trimester.

How can you manage it?
Munch a few crackers before getting up in the morning.
Eat several small meals a day so that your stomach is never empty.
Avoid anything that causes nausea.
Drink plenty of liquids, especially if you've been vomiting. Try crushed ice, fruit juice or frozen ice pops if water upsets your stomach.
Try wearing a motion sickness band, which may relieve nausea by pressing on an acupressure point inside the wrist.
Suck on hard candy.
Try ginger, which has proved effective in combating morning sickness. Some ways to consume the spice include ginger soda or tea, gingersnaps or ginger in capsule form.

Constipation

How common is it?
Constipation affects at least half of all pregnant women.

What causes it?
An increase in the hormone progesterone, which slows the digestive process, is partly to blame. In addition, your colon absorbs more water, which tends to make stools harder and bowel movements more difficult.

How long does it last?
Infrequent, difficult-to-pass stool can be a problem any time during pregnancy, but it may be worst in the first 13 to 14 weeks.

How can you manage it?
Try to eat on a regular schedule.
Drink plenty of liquids — at least eight to 10 glasses a day.
Get some exercise every day.
Eat high-fiber fruits, vegetables and grains such as whole wheat and oatmeal.
Try fiber supplements, such as psyllium powder, Metamucil, Konsyl, Fiberall or Citrucel. A mild laxative such as milk of magnesia is safe, but don't take any other laxative without discussing it with your doctor.

Dizziness or fainting
How common are they?Although exact numbers aren't available, perhaps as many as one in 20 women experiences some degree of lightheadedness during pregnancy. Contrary to what's often depicted in movies, pregnant women rarely faint.

What causes them?
Pregnancy results in a dramatic dilation of the blood vessels of your body. In the first half of pregnancy, however, your blood volume may not have expanded enough to fill all of this space. The result is lower blood pressure. Two conditions that are common during pregnancy — low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) and a low red blood cell count (anemia) — also can cause lightheadedness. The latter two causes may need medical attention.

How long do they last?
Dizziness or fainting can occur at any time during pregnancy, but may be especially noticeable early in the second trimester, when your blood vessels have dilated in response to pregnancy hormones but your blood volume hasn't yet expanded to fill them.

How can you manage them?
Arise slowly as you get up from lying or sitting down.
Walk at a slower pace and take frequent rest breaks.
Avoid prolonged standing.
Instead of lying flat on your back, lie on your side. A pillow tucked under your abdomen may make this position more comfortable.
Guard against overheating. Saunas and hot tubs may increase the chance of fainting. Take cooler baths and showers, use air conditioning when needed, and avoid warm, crowded areas.
Stay physically active to improve blood circulation. Good activities include walking, water aerobics and prenatal yoga.
Drink plenty of fluids, particularly early in the day.
Eat iron-rich foods such as beans, red meat, green leafy vegetables and dried fruits to help your body get the iron needed to build red blood cells.

Fatigue - How common is it?
Almost all women report increased fatigue and need for sleep in the first trimester.

What causes it?
To carry oxygen and nutrients to the fetus, your body produces extra blood and your heart works harder and faster. These early pregnancy changes make enormous demands on your circulatory system. During this time, you're also producing higher levels of progesterone, which tends to make you sleepy. These may be factors producing the fatigue of early pregnancy.
How long does it last?Fatigue usually subsides by the second trimester, but may return in the third trimester when carrying the extra weight of the baby may be tiring.

How can you manage it?

• Rest. Take naps during the day or after work. If you need to go to bed at 7 p.m. to feel rested, do so. This is a symptom that has no solution other than sleep.
• Avoid taking on extra responsibilities. Cut down on volunteer commitments and social events if they're wearing you out.
• Ask for the support you need. Get your partner or children to help out as much as possible.
• Exercise regularly. Moderate exercise, such as walking for 30 minutes a day, can help you feel more alert and energetic.
• Eat foods rich in iron and protein. Skimping on these nutrients can aggravate your fatigue. Foods rich in both iron and protein include red meat, seafood, poultry and eggs. Other good sources of iron include whole-grain or iron-fortified cereals, breads and pastas.
• Avoid stimulants. Avoid caffeine, which may be harmful in high doses. Any product marketed for relieving fatigue and enhancing wakefulness is unsafe in pregnancy.

Heartburn - How common is it?
More than half of all pregnant women get heartburn, an uncomfortable sensation caused by the backward flow of stomach acids into the esophagus, the tube that carries food from your mouth to your stomach.

What causes it?
Constipation, gas and heartburn are all effects of sluggish digestion, induced by pregnancy hormones. As pregnancy progresses, a second factor — the expansion of the uterus, which can push your stomach out of its normal position — also may contribute to heartburn.

How long does it last?
Heartburn can be a problem at any time during pregnancy, but may be most noticeable during the third trimester.

How can you manage it?

• Eat several small meals instead of two or three large ones. No matter how small the meal, eat slowly.
• Avoid common heartburn triggers, such as fried foods, alcohol, chocolate, peppermint, garlic and onion.
• Drink plenty of fluids, especially water.
• Avoid coffee. Both regular and decaffeinated coffee may worsen heartburn.
• Stay up for two to three hours after your evening meal. If your heartburn comes on when you recline, raise the head of your bed four to six inches.
• Talk to your physician about using antacids or other medications that relieve heartburn. These products can be used safely in pregnancy, but your physician should know which ones you take and how often you take them.

Mood swings - How common are they?
Although the incidence of mood swings is unknown, some women in the first trimester and again in the weeks before delivery may experience emotional fluctuations ranging from exhilaration and joy to irritation and depression.

What causes them?
Nagging discomforts, hormonal changes and understandable anxiety about the future may all contribute to sudden shifts in your mood. You may feel better if you remind yourself that powerful emotions are normal and healthy. Simply recognizing that you're unusually moody can help you and those around you weather the storms.

How long do they last? 
Mood swings may occur at any time during pregnancy. If you've typically experienced premenstrual syndrome, you may have more extreme mood swings when you're pregnant.

How can you manage it?

• Eat regular meals and snacks that include a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables and whole grains. Get plenty of sleep.
• Rely on your network of family and friends for support, but if you feel overwhelmed, contact your physician.
• Try relaxation techniques such as meditation, guided mental imagery and progressive muscle relaxation.

Nasal problems: Snoring, congestion and nosebleeds
How common are they?
Up to a quarter of pregnant women snore, compared with about 4 percent of women the same age who aren't pregnant. Nasal congestion and nosebleeds also are relatively common.
What causes them?As more blood flows to your body's mucous membranes, the lining of your nose and airway swells, which can restrict airflow and cause snoring, congestion and nosebleeds. Although snoring is usually just a nuisance, it can be associated with serious conditions such as high blood pressure (hypertension) or a sleep disorder in which you stop breathing for short periods (sleep apnea). Women who snore during pregnancy are at higher risk of pregnancy-induced high blood pressure (preeclampsia).

How long do they last?
Nasal problems can develop at any time during pregnancy.

How can you prevent snoring?
Sleep on your side rather than your back. Sleeping on your back can cause your tongue and soft palate to rest against the back of your throat and block your airway.
Wear a nasal strip to open your nasal passages.
Avoid gaining more than the amount of weight your doctor recommends.

Vaginal discharge and vaginal infections - How common are they?
An increase in vaginal discharge is essentially universal in pregnancy as a result of marked increase in the turnover of vaginal lining cells.

What causes them?
The hormonally induced thickening of the vaginal wall can cause a thin, white and odorless discharge called leukorrhea. It's harmless and needs no treatment. Other types of discharge can be caused by bacterial or yeast infections. Bacterial vaginosis, for example, causes a foul-smelling, gray to greenish discharge. Signs and symptoms of a yeast infection include a thick, white and curd-like vaginal discharge, itching, burning and redness around the vagina and vulva, and painful urination. Neither a bacterial nor a yeast infection presents a direct hazard to your baby, and both can be treated during pregnancy. Yeast infections are more common due to the effect of pregnancy hormones on the vaginal environment. Bacterial vaginosis is no more frequent in pregnant women than in other sexually active women.

How long do they last?
A whitish vaginal discharge will likely be present throughout pregnancy. If you have symptoms of itching, odor, burning or other vaginal discomfort, it may be an infection and should be evaluated and treated by your doctor.

Douching will not help the normal increase in vaginal discharge and could cause an infection in your uterus that could actually provoke the premature delivery of your baby. Never douche during pregnancy.

Other problems
Headaches are quite frequent in early pregnancy but are rarely serious. If you get an occasional headache, ask your physician about taking acetaminophen when the pain begins. Back pain is usually a problem of later pregnancy but may arise in the first trimester, especially if you have been pregnant before.

Urinary tract infections are somewhat more common in pregnancy and must be treated when they happen. Frequency of urination is very common in pregnancy as the expanding uterus exerts pressure on your bladder. Pain with urination may be a symptom of a urinary infection and should be promptly evaluated by your care provider.
Also call your doctor immediately if you experience any of the following:

• Moderate to heavy vaginal bleeding
• Any amount of vaginal bleeding accompanied by pain, cramping fever or chills
• Passing of tissue
• A severe or persistent headache, especially with dizziness, faintness, nausea or vomiting, or visual disturbance
• Moderate or severe pelvic pain
• Any degree of pelvic pain that doesn't subside within four hours
• Pain with fever or bleeding
• Vomiting with pain or fever
• Chills or fever (102 degrees Fahrenheit or higher)

Your morning sickness, day and evening sleepiness, heartburn and other early symptoms are strong reminders that your body is supporting your baby's growth and development. If you get enough rest and do what you can to stay comfortable, you and your baby will thrive throughout your pregnancy.

This is can be very useful for both pregnant women and those who are almost there. Of course it’s a delight for every woman to carry her own child on he laps. Always visit your doctor for routine medical checkup during pregnancy and when ever you feel the problem is more complicated than how you thought.

Fitness - Exercise

Physical exercise is the performance of some activity in order to develop or maintain physical fitness and overall health. It is often directed toward also honing athletic ability or skill. Frequent and regular physical exercise is an important component in the prevention of some of the diseases of affluene such as heart disease, cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and obesity.
Exercises are generally grouped into three types depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:
Flexibility exercises such as stretching improve the range of motion of muscles and joints.
Aerobic exercises such as walking and running focus on increasing cardiovascular endurance.
Anaerobic exercises such as weight training, functional training or sprinting increase short-term muscle strength.
Physical exercise is considered important for maintaining physical fitness including healthy weight; building and maintaining healthy bones, muscles, and joints; promoting physiological well-being; reducing surgical risks; and strengthening the immune system.
Proper nutrition is at least as important to health as exercise. When exercising it becomes even more important to have good diet to ensure the body has the correct ratio of macronutrients whilst providing ample micronutrients, this is to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise
Proper rest and recovery is also as important to health as exercise, otherwise the body exists in a permanently injured state and will not improve or adapt adequately to the exercise. Hence, it is important to remember not to do the same type of exercise two-days-in-a-row.
The above two factors can be compromised by psychological compulsions (eating disorders such as exercise bulimia, anorexia, and other bulimias), misinformation, a lack of organization, or a lack of motivation. These all lead to a decreased state of health.
Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness can occur after any kind of exercise, particularly if the body is in an unconditioned state relative to that exercise
==Exercise benefits== yoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyoyo Frequent and regular exercise has been shown to help prevent or to cure major illnesses such as high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, Type 2 diabetes, insomnia, and depression. Researchers have shown that three 10 minute walks burn as many calories and exercise the heart as well as one 30 minute walk. (Strength training, on the other hand, appears to have continuous energy-burning effects that persist for about 24 hours after the training.) Exercise can also increase energy and raise one's threshold for pain.
There is conflicting evidence as to whether vigorous exercise (more than 70% of VO2 Max) is more or less beneficial than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO2 Max). However studies have shown that vigorous exercise executed by healthy individuals can effectively increase opioid peptides (aka endorphins, a naturally occurring opiate that in conjunction with other neurotransmitters is responsible for exercise induced euphoria and has been shown to be addictive), positively influence hormone production (i.e., increase testosterone and growth hormone), and help prevent neuromuscular diseases. These benefits are not as fully realized with more moderate exercise.
Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise also work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume, or myocardial thickness.

Common myths
Many myths have arisen surrounding exercise, some of which have a basis in reality, and some which are completely false. Myths include:
That excessive exercise can cause immediate death. Death by exercise has some small basis in fact. Water intoxication can result from prolific sweating (producing electrolyte losses) combined with consumption of large amounts of water (e.g. when running a marathon).
Weightlifting makes you short or stops growth. One caveat is that heavy weight training in adolescents can damage the epiphyseal plate of long bones.

Targeted fat reduction
It is a common belief that training a particular body part will preferentially shed the fat on that part; for example, that doing sit-ups is the most direct way to reduce subcutaneous belly fat. This is false: one cannot reduce fat from one area of the body to the exclusion of others. Most of the energy derived from fat gets to the muscle through the bloodstream and reduces stored fat in the entire body. Sit-ups may improve the size and shape of abdominal muscles but will not specifically target belly fat for loss. Instead, such exercise may help reduce overall body fat, affecting all parts of the body as determined by genetics. In fact, belly fat will often be the last fat removed from the body

Muscle and fat tissue
Some people incorrectly believe that muscle tissue will turn into fat once a person stops exercising. In reality, fat tissue and muscle tissue are fundamentally different. However, the more common expression of this myth "muscle will turn to fat" has a grain of truth. Although a muscle cell will not become a fat cell, the material that makes up muscle can in fact turn to fat. The catabolism of muscle fibers releases protein, which can be converted to glucose that can be burned as fuel, and excesses of which can be stored as fat. Moreover, the composition of a body part can change toward less muscle and more fat, so that a cross-section of the upper-arm for example, will have a greater area corresponding to fat and a smaller area corresponding to muscle. This is not muscle "turning to fat" however, it is simply a combination of muscle atrophy and increased fat storage in different tissues of the same body part. Another element of increased fatty deposits is that of diet, as most trainees will not significantly reduce their diet in order to compensate for the lack of exercise/activity.

Too much exercise
Too much exercise can be harmful. The body part needs at least a day of rest, which is why most health experts say one should exercise every other day or 3 times a week. Without proper rest, the chance of stroke or other circulation problems increases, and muscle tissue may develop slowly.
Appropriate exercise does more good than harm, with the definition of "appropriate" varying according to the individual. For many activities, especially running, there are significant injuries that occur with poorly regimented exercise schedules. In extreme instances, over-exercising induces serious performance loss. Unaccustomed overexertion of muscles leads to rhabdomyolysis (damage to muscle) most often seen in new army recruits. Another danger is overtraining in which the intensity or volume of training exceeds the body's capacity to recover between bouts.
Stopping excessive exercise suddenly can also create a change in mood. Feelings of depression and agitation can occur when withdrawal from the natural endorphins produced by exercise occurs.
Physical exercise releases opioid peptides or endorphins, opiates that exhibit synergetic effects with other neurotransmitters, causing exercise euphoria, also known as "runners high", and causing addiction to physical exercise and possibly decreased sex drive. This usually leads to over-exercising; a person suffering exercise addiction is often described as a "gym rat", "body nazi", "exercise freak", etc.

Exercise helps brain function
In the long term, exercise helps the brain by:
increasing the blood and oxygen flow to the brain
increasing growth factors that help create new nerve cells
increasing chemicals in the brain that help cognition

Chicken Pox- Another health problem

Chickenpox is a common illness among kids, particularly those under age 12. An itchy rash of spots that look like blisters can appear all over the body and may be accompanied by flu-like symptoms. Symptoms usually go away without treatment, but because the infection is very contagious, an infected child should stay home and rest until the symptoms are gone.
Chickenpox is caused by the varicella-zoster virus (VZV). Kids can be protected from VZV by getting the chickenpox vaccine, usually between the ages of 12 to 18 months, though sometimes the vaccine is given to older kids, teens, and adults.
A person usually has only one episode of chickenpox, but VZV can lie dormant within the body and cause a different type of skin eruption later in life called shingles (or herpes zoster). Getting the chickenpox vaccine significantly lowers your child's chances of getting chickenpox, but he or she may still develop shingles later.

Symptoms of Chickenpox
Chickenpox causes a red, itchy rash on the skin that usually appears first on the abdomen or back and face, and then spreads to almost everywhere else on the body, including the scalp, mouth, nose, ears, and genitals.
The rash begins as multiple small, red bumps that look like pimples or insect bites. They develop into thin-walled blisters filled with clear fluid, which becomes cloudy. The blister wall breaks, leaving open sores, which finally crust over to become dry, brown scabs.
Chickenpox blisters are usually less than a quarter of an inch wide, have a reddish base, and appear in bouts over 2 to 4 days. The rash may be more extensive or severe in kids who have skin disorders such as eczema.
Some children have a fever, abdominal pain, sore throat, headache, or a vague sick feeling a day or 2 before the rash appears. These symptoms may last for a few days, and fever stays in the range of 100°–102° Fahrenheit (37.7°–38.8° Celsius), though in rare cases may be higher. Younger kids often have milder symptoms and fewer blisters than older children or adults.
Typically, chickenpox is a mild illness, but can affect some infants, teens, adults, and people with weak immune systems more severely. Some people can develop serious bacterial infections involving the skin, lungs, bones, joints, and the brain (encephalitis). Even kids with normal immune systems can occasionally develop complications, most commonly a skin infection near the blisters.
Anyone who has had chickenpox (or the chickenpox vaccine) as a child is at risk for developing shingles later in life, and up to 20% do. After an infection, VZV can remain inactive in nerve cells near the spinal cord and reactivate later as shingles, which can cause tingling, itching, or pain followed by a rash with red bumps and blisters. Shingles is sometimes treated with antiviral drugs, steroids, and pain medications, and in May 2006 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a vaccine to prevent shingles in people 60 and older.
Contagiousness
Chickenpox is contagious from about 2 days before the rash appears and lasts until all the blisters are crusted over. A child with chickenpox should be kept out of school until all blisters have dried, usually about 1 week. If you're unsure about whether your child is ready to return to school, ask your doctor.
Chickenpox is very contagious — most kids with a sibling who's been infected will get it as well, showing symptoms about 2 weeks after the first child does. To help keep the virus from spreading, make sure your kids wash their hands frequently, particularly before eating and after using the bathroom. And keep a child with chickenpox away from unvaccinated siblings as much as possible.
People who haven't had chickenpox also can catch it from someone with shingles, but they cannot catch shingles itself. That's because shingles can only develop from a reactivation of VZV in someone who has previously had chickenpox.

Chickenpox and Pregnancy
Pregnant women and anyone with immune system problems should not be near a person with chickenpox. If a pregnant woman who hasn't had chickenpox in the past contracts it (especially in the first 20 weeks of pregnancy), the fetus is at risk for birth defects and she is at risk for more health complications than if she'd been infected when she wasn't pregnant. If she develops chickenpox just before or after the child is born, the newborn is at risk for serious health complications. There is no risk to the developing baby if the woman develops shingles during the pregnancy.
If a pregnant woman has had chickenpox before the pregnancy, the baby will be protected from infection for the first few months of life, since the mother's immunity gets passed on to the baby through the placenta and breast milk.
Those at risk for severe disease or serious complications — such as newborns whose mothers had chickenpox at the time of delivery, patients with leukemia or immune deficiencies, and kids receiving drugs that suppress the immune system — may be given varicella zoster immune globulin after exposure to chickenpox to reduce its severity.
Preventing Chickenpox
Doctors recommend that kids receive the chickenpox vaccine when they are 12 to 18 months old. The vaccine is about 70% to 85% effective at preventing mild infection, and more than 95% effective in preventing moderate to severe forms of the infection. Although the vaccine works pretty well, some kids who are immunized still will get chickenpox. Those who do, though, will have much milder symptoms than those who haven't had the vaccine and become infected.
Healthy children who have had chickenpox do not need the vaccine — they usually have lifelong protection against the illness.

Treating Chickenpox
A virus causes chickenpox, so your child's doctor won't prescribe antibiotics. However, antibiotics may be required if the sores become infected by bacteria. This is pretty common among kids because they often scratch and pick at the blisters.
The antiviral medicine acyclovir may be prescribed for people with chickenpox who are at risk for complications. The drug, which can make the infection less severe, must be given within the first 24 hours after the rash appears. Acyclovir can have significant side effects, so it is only given when necessary. Your doctor can tell you if the medication is right for your child.

Dealing With the Discomfort of Chickenpox
You can help relieve the itchiness, fever, and discomfort of chickenpox by:
Using cool wet compresses or giving baths in cool or lukewarm water every 3 to 4 hours for the first few days. Oatmeal baths, available at the supermarket or pharmacy, can help to relieve itching. (Baths do not spread chickenpox.)
Patting (not rubbing) the body dry.
Putting calamine lotion on itchy areas (but don't use it on the face, especially near the eyes).
Giving your child foods that are cold, soft, and bland because chickenpox in the mouth may make drinking or eating difficult. Avoid feeding your child anything highly acidic or especially salty, like orange juice or pretzels.
Asking your doctor or pharmacist about pain-relieving creams to apply to sores in the genital area.
Giving your child acetaminophen regularly to help relieve pain if your child has mouth blisters.
Asking the doctor about using over-the-counter medication for itching.
Never use aspirin to reduce pain or fever in children with chickenpox because aspirin has been associated with the serious disease , which can lead to liver failure and even death.
As much as possible, discourage kids from scratching. This can be difficult for them, so consider putting mittens or socks on your child's hands to prevent scratching during sleep. In addition, trim fingernails and keep them clean to help lessen the effects of scratching, including broken blisters and infection.
Most chickenpox infections require no special medical treatment. But sometimes, there are problems. Call the doctor if your child:
has fever that lasts for more than 4 days or rises above 102° Fahrenheit (38.8° Celsius)
has a severe cough or trouble breathing
has an area of rash that leaks pus (thick, discolored fluid) or becomes red, warm, swollen, or sore
has a severe headache
is unusually drowsy or has trouble waking up
has trouble looking at bright lights
has difficulty walking
seems confused
seems very ill or is vomiting
has a stiff neck
Call your doctor if you think your child has chickenpox, if you have a question, or if you're concerned about a possible complication. The doctor can guide you in watching for complications and in choosing medication to relieve itching. When taking your child to the doctor, let the office know in advance that your child might have chickenpox. It's important to ensure that other kids in the office are not exposed — for some of them, a chickenpox infection could cause severe complications.

Fast Facts: The fight against Polio in Africa

A REGION AT RISK
In 2004, Africa recorded 74% of all polio cases in the world (12631 cases). An epidemic, caused by suspension of immunization campaigns in Nigeria and spurred by low immunity across the region, re-infected 11 previously polio free countries and re-established transmission in six (Côte d'Ivoire, the Sudan, Burkina Faso, the Central African Republic, Chad and Mali). A massive immunization response from African countries took place last year. Efforts were
hampered by conflict in Sudan, where vaccinators found it hard to reach children, and in Cote d’Ivoire, where campaigns were halted due to civil unrest.

TAKING ACTION
To close down the epidemic, 23 African nations will come together in 2005 to synchronize mass immunization campaigns aiming to reach 100 million children. The first round of campaigns was conducted from 25 February-1 March; a second round will take place from 8-12 April, and a third from 14-17 May. Participating countries are Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo and Uganda. In many countries, Vitamin A will be delivered with the vaccine to boost children’s immunity. Similar campaigns in 2000 and 2001 stopped polio in all but three African countries.

THE CHALLENGE AHEAD
It is feasible to stop polio globally by end-2005. But this goal can only be achieved if every un-immunized child is reached. The success of polio eradication depends on political determination to hold high quality campaigns that deliver the vaccine to the hardest-to-reach children – those living in remote communities, conflict zones or refugee camps, with little or no basic healthcare. However, the global polio eradication initiative is facing a critical funding shortfall of US$75 million for 2005 and US$200 million for 2006.

SO MUCH IS AT STAKE
There has been a massive global investment to date in the fight against polio - over US$3 billion and countless volunteer hours.
Stopping transmission in Africa would be a just return on this investment, proving we can work together to reach development targets.
National and global leaders have given their full support to achieving this important goal: the African Union, the Organization of the
Islamic Conference and the G8 have all committed to providing the necessary funds and oversight until polio has been stopped.

THE GLOBAL PICTURE
The remaining six endemic countries are in Asia (India, Pakistan and Afghanistan) and Africa (Nigeria, Niger and Egypt). Between 2003 and 2004, transmission halved in Asia (335 vs 186, the region’s lowest ever rate) but more than doubled in Africa (448 vs 1037). The Africa epidemic continues to export the virus to polio-free countries, most recently into Saudi Arabia and Ethiopia. This proves that polio anywhere is a threat to children everywhere.



UNICEF West & Central Africa Regional Office – April 2005

In-depth- Nigeria Polio

In-depth- Nigeria Polio


Poliomyelitis (polio) is a highly infectious disease caused by a virus. It invades the nervous system, and can cause total paralysis in a matter of hours. It can strike at any age, but mainly affects children under five years through contaminated drinking water.
The virus enters the body through the mouth and multiplies in the intestine. Initial symptoms are
fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, stiffness in the neck and pain in the limbs. One in 200 infections leads to irreversible paralysis (usually in the legs). Amongst those paralysed, 5%-10% die when their breathing muscles become immobilized. Although polio paralysis is the most visible sign of polio infection, fewer than 1% of polio infections ever result in paralysis.
Poliovirus can spread widely before cases of paralysis are seen. Poliovirus can travel from
village to village and country to country, through un-immunized children. One unimmunized child
can leave tens or hundreds more paralysed for life. While polio exists anywhere, children
everywhere are at risk. As most people infected with poliovirus have no signs of illness, they are
never aware they have been infected. After initial infection with poliovirus, the virus is shed
intermittently in faeces (excrement) for several weeks. During that time, polio can spread rapidly
through the community.
Global goal of eradicating polio
■ In 1988, the World Health Assembly, the annual meeting of the ministers of health from all
members of the World Health Organization, including Nigeria, voted to eradicate polio and
launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative. The goal was to ensure that no child would ever
again know the crippling effects of polio.
Biggest health initiative ever
■ The Global Polio Eradication Initiative is the largest public health initiative the world has ever
known. As a result of this Initiative, by late-2003 polio had been eliminated from all but 6 countries
and fewer than 1000 children had been paralysed by the disease during that year. The Initiative
spearheaded by the World Health Organization, Rotary International, US Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention and UNICEF, is a unique collaboration of governments, international
organizations the private sector, civil society and over 20 million volunteers. More notably, nearly
five million children were walking who would otherwise have been paralysed by polio and 1.25
million childhood deaths had been averted by distributing vitamin A during polio immunization
campaigns.
Kicking polio out of Nigeria
■ In 1996, Africa leaders, including Nigeria, together launched an enormous effort to improve the health of the children across the continent, and united to eradicate polio from the continent for good. Together

the (then) Organization for African Unity pledged its own destiny and determination to make Africa free of polio. In 1996, polio was rampant in at least 41 African countries. Tragically as many as 75,000 African children were paralyzed every year. Since then tremendous progress has been made towards eradicating polio from Nigeria. In fact, until 2002, many states in the south of Nigeria were largely polio-free.
■ Investing in polio helps address other health programmes in Nigeria
Nigeria has made a huge investment in protecting its children from polio. Until we finish the job, this investment is under threat. Polio does not respect borders - country, state or even village. Polio anywhere is a threat to children everywhere. It is easy to forget that polio once crippled over
1000 children every day. We are now on the brink of eradicating this crippling disease globally. But if we stop our efforts now, we will again see a resurgence of polio across Nigeria.
Nigeria's polio eradication programme is reaching out to more children in more LGAs, districts and communities, more often than any other programme. In fact it is providing the basis for
other national public health efforts - including the surveillance of diseases, improvement in vitamin A status, and response to other disease outbreaks. This focus on the health of all people contributes to equity and national development. As the national capacity to promote public health
increases with success in eradicating polio, efforts can be extended to other priority conditions – such as measles, malaria and HIV/AIDS.
■ What will it take to eradicate polio?
Engaging everyone to reach every child – from the head of state, local religious leaders and
traditional leaders, media, health workers, teachers, vaccinators and most importantly
parents. Rebuilding trust in polio immunization at the community level. Strengthening routine immunization - the best prevention against polio. Boosting surveillance to immediately detect
and respond to poliovirus. Focusing on the very young – protecting newborns who are often missed during campaigns.
National Immunization Days in Nigeria
Did you know what is involved in a 4-day immunization campaign in Nigeria? Here are just some of the basic
facts…
■ 138,220 vaccinators
■ 27, 644 supervisors, with 13,822 vehicles (cars, motorcycles, mopeds, bicycles, boats, whatever it takes to reach every child)
■ 3,200 community mobilizers visiting homes and addressing parent’s concerns in the high risk northern
states
■ 45 million doses of polio vaccine, carried around the country in 83,000 Kick Polio Out of Nigeria vaccine carriers
■ 498,000 ice-packs to keep all doses of polio vaccine cold despite the hot Nigerian temperatures
■ All children under five years of age immunized in just 4 days!
■ The commitment and support of everyone in Nigeria

Nigeria—The polio facts at a glance
The maps show that poliovirus can travel from state to state and village to village and country to
country through un-immunized children.
■ Rapid progress continues to be made towards polio eradication in Nigeria.
■ The number of polio cases to date in 2005, while still substantial at 52, is nearly 50% of
that for the same period in 2004.
■ This progress reflects the engagement of political, traditional and religious leaders at the federal, state, LGA and ward levels and the full support of a strong partnership.
■ As of 6 May, Nigeria has 78 confirmed cases of wild poliovirus in 2005, in 18 states. This
compares to 125 cases in 25 states in the same period in 2004.The number of Nigerian
children crippled by polio increased from 355 (total) in 2003 to 792 cases in 2004.
■ Although the number of confirmed poliovirus cases continues to increase, there has been a
downward trend in the number of cases since May 2004.
■ Nigeria accounted for 63% of the total number of poliovirus cases reported globally in 2004.
■ Currently 70% of Nigeria’s poliovirus cases are children below 3 yrs of age and 67% have
received less than 3 doses of OPV.
■ 6 States in the northwest - Kano, Kaduna, Sokoto, Zamfara, Kebbi, and Jigawa account
for 73% of the total number of children paralysed by polio.
■ There has been a downward trend in the number of cases since May 2004. This
indicates a degree of control of the infection in the southern states, along with the impact of
resumed immunization in the north.


Putting Polio Eradication in Nigeria in a global context
Poliovirus can travel from village to village and country to country, through unimmunized children. One un-immunized child can leave tens or hundreds more paralysed for life. African countries are increasingly vulnerable to importations of poliovirus linked to Nigeria. While polio exists anywhere, children everywhere are at risk of infection. 16 previously polio-free countries, most recently Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia and Yemen have been re-infected.
Figures at a glance
As of 6 May, 78 Nigerian children have been paralysed by polio in 2005. This compares to 125
during the same period in 2004. 792 Nigerian children were paralysed by polio in 2004.
1266 children globally were paralysed by polio in 2004 (as of 25 March 2005).
List of countries for synchroNIDs: Benin, Burkina-Faso, Cameroon, Cap Verde, Central
African Republic, Chad, Congo-Brazzaville, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea- Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo. Polio affected countries Endemic: Niger, Nigeria (note that Egypt is also polio-endemic) Countries with re-established transmission:
Sudan, Central African Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Chad, Burkina Faso and Mali Re-infected: Benin, Botswana, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia, Togo and Yemen.
At risk: Cape Verde, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mauritania, Senegal & Sierra Leone.


WHO